Wind energy - the facts : a guide to the technology, economics and future of wind power

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations . . xvii
Acknowledgements . . xix
Foreword . . xxi
EWEA Foreword . . xxiii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . 1
Part I: Technology . . 4
Part II: Grid Integration . . 8
Part III: The Economics of Wind Power . . 13
Part IV: Industry and Markets . . 19
Part V: Environment . . 24
Part VI: Scenarios and Targets . . 26

PART I: TECHNOLOGY . . 29
Chapter 1.1: Introduction . . 31
Chapter I.2: Wind Resource Estimation . . 32
Chapter I.3: Wind Turbine Technology . . 63
Chapter I.4: Wind Farm Design . . 94
Chapter I.5: Offshore . . 107
Chapter I.6: Small Wind Turbines . . 125
Chapter I.7: Research and Development . . 139
Part I Notes . . 151

PART II: GRID INTEGRATION . . 153
Chapter II.1: Setting the Scene . . 155
Chapter II.2: Wind Power Variability and Impacts on Power Systems . . 158
Chapter II.3: Design and Operation of European Power Systems with Large Amounts of Wind Power . . 167
Chapter II.4: Grid Infrastructure Upgrade for Large-Scale Integration . . 173
Chapter II.5: Grid Connection Requirements . . 181
Chapter II.6: Wind Power's Contribution to System Adequacy . . 186
Chapter II.7: Economic Aspects: Integration Costs and Benefits . . 190
Part II Notes . . 196

PART III: THE ECONOMICS OF WIND POWER . . 197
Part III Introduction . . 199
Chapter III.1: Cost of On-Land Wind Power . . 200
Chapter III.2: Offshore Developments . . 212
Chapter III.3: Project Financing . . 221
Chapter III.4: Prices and Support Mechanisms . . 226
Chapter III.5: Wind Power on the Spot Market . . 239
Chapter III.6: Wind Power Compared to Conventional Power Generation . . 248
Chapter III.7: Employment . . 251
Part III Notes . . 258

PART IV: INDUSTRY AND MARKETS . . 259
Part IV Introduction . . 261
Chapter IV.1: Wind in the European Power Market . . 262
Chapter IV.2: European Market Overview . . 268
Chapter IV.3: Industry Actors and Investment Trends . . 279
Chapter IV.4: Global Wind Energy Markets . . 289
Chapter IV.5: Administrative and Grid Access Barriers: An Analysis of Existing EU Studies in the Field . . 298
Part IV Notes . . 305

PART V: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES . . 307
Part V Introduction . . 309
Chapter V.1: Environmental Benefits . . 311
Chapter V.2: Environmental Impacts . . 328
Chapter V.3: Policy Measures to Combat Climate Change . . 348
Chapter V.4: Externalities and Wind Compared to Other Techologies . . 365
Chapter V.5: Environmental Benefits of Wind Energy in Comparison to Remaining Electricity Generation Technologies . . 377
Chapter V.6: Social Acceptance of Wind Energy and Wind Farms . . 399
Part V Notes . . 411

PART VI: SCENARIOS AND TARGETS . . 413
Part VI Introduction . . 415
Chapter VI.1: Scenarios for the EU-27 . . 417
Chapter VI.2: Projecting Targets for the EU-27 up to 2030 . . 419
Chapter VI.3: Contribution of Wind Power to Electricity Generation and Generation Capacity in the EU-27 . . 425
Chapter VI.4: Costs and Benefits of Wind Development in the EU-27 . . 432
Chapter VI.5: Global Scenarios . . 439
Chapter VI.6: The 'Global Wind Energy Outlook' Scenarios . . 444
Part VI Notes . . 450

APPENDICES . . 451
Appendix A: Onshore Wind Maps . . 452
Appendix B: Offshore Wind Speeds Modelled in 'Study of Offshore Wind Energy in the EC' . . 462
Appendix C: Worked Example for Culliagh Wind Farm, Ireland . . 469
Appendix D: Detailed Description of Correlation Techniques . . 483
Appendix E: SWT Manufacturers and Their Models . . 485
Appendix F: Current National and European R&D . . 489
Appendix G: Transmission Systems in Europe . . 500
Appendix H: Basics Concerning the Operation and Balancing of Power Systems . . 501
Appendix I: Detailed Country Reports . . 504
Appendix J: Studies on Employment Creation in the Wind Energy Sector . . 526

Glossary . . 529
References . . 541
Index . . 557