Marks of fire, value and faith : swords with ferrous inlays in Finland during the Late Iron Age (ca. 700-1200 AD)

1. INTRODUCTION . . 11
1.1. A brief overview of the development of the sword . . 11
1.2. The background and purpose of this study . . 14
1.3. The number and distribution of the examined swords . . 16
1.4. The chronological framework of this study . . 21

2. RESEARCH HISTORY OF SWORDS WITH FERROUS INLAYS . . 23
2.1. Finland . . 23
2.2. Scandinavia . . 25
2.3. Russia and the Baltic countries . . 27
2.4. Germany, the Netherlands and the Czech Rebublic . . 28
2.5. The United Kingdom . . 28
2.6. Summarizing the history of research: four types of studies . . 29

3. THE PROCESS AND METHODS OF RESEARCH . . 33
3.1. Iron, its production and working . . 33
3.1.1. Iron and its alloys . . 33
3.1.2. The prehistoric production and alloying of iron and steel . . 35
3.1.3. Mechanical working of iron . . 37
3.1.4. The heat-treating of iron and steel . . 39
3.2. The measurement and documentation of the sword as a whole . . 40
3.3. The revealing of inlaid marks: radiography and mechanical cleansing . . 43
3.4. Examination of inlays: microscopy . . 47
3.5. The technology of blades: metallography and hardness measurements . . 50
3.6. Catalogue and drawings . . 55

4. BLADES . . 56
4.1. Measurements . . 56
4.2. Blade typologies . . 58
4.3. The categorization of the examined blades according to typologies and measurements . . 60
4.4. Methods of blade construction . . 63
4.4.1. General points of view . . 63
4.4.2. Blades folded from similar kind of material . . 67
4.4.3. Blades piled from layers of different materials . . 69
4.4.4. Blades with separately welded cutting edges . . 71
4.4.5. Blades with a low-carbon core and a 'wrapped' steel case . . 75
4.4.6. Pattern-welded blades with inlays . . 77
4.5. Construction, composition and correspondence between various inlays . . 83
4.5.1. ULFBERHT swords in the focus of studies . . 83
4.5.1.1. Analyses and groupings of material by Alan Williams . . 83
4.5.1.2. On crucible steel . . 87
4.5.1.3. Other analyses of ULFBERHT blades . . 89
4.5.2. Other inlaid blades . . 90
4.6. Summary of metallographically analysed Finnish blades . . 94
4.7. Notes on trace elements and provenance . . 96
4.8. Traces of use . . 99
4.9. Remains of scabbards . . 102
4.10. Summary and conclusions concerning blades . . 103

5. INLAID INSCRIPTIONS AND MOTIFS . . 105
5.1. Measurements and placement . . 105
5.2. The materials of inlays . . 110
5.2.1. Plain iron and steel . . 110
5.2.2. Pattern-welded inlays . . 113
5.2.2.1. On pattern-welding in general . . 113
5.2.2.2. Appearance and practical execution . . 120
5.2.2.3. The composition of the layers . . 124
5.3. Content-based grouping . . 125
5.3.1. ULFBERHT . . 125
5.3.1.1. Variation and spatial distribution of studied finds . . 125
5.3.1.2. Alternatives for interpretation, dating and origin . . 131
5.3.1.3. The spatial distribution of ULFBERHT blades in Europe . . 134
5.3.1.4. Variations and copies . . 134
5.3.2. INGELRII . . 138
5.3.2.1. Features of the studied finds . . 138
5.3.2.2. Dating and interpretations . . 140
5.3.3. Other inscriptions with Latin letters . . 142
5.3.3.1. Maker's names . . 142
5.3.3.2. Complete phrases and words related to Christianity . . 145
5.3.3.3. Letter sequences possibly referring to Christian phrases . . 146
5.3.3.4. Other letter combinations . . 148
5.3.3.5. Spatial distribution . . 150
5.3.4. Letter-like marks . . 151
5.3.4.1. General observations . . 151
5.3.4.2. Marks accompanied by lattices . . 153
5.3.4.3. Marks accompanied by other geometric motifs . . 155
5.3.4.4. Letter-like marks on both sides of the blade . . 156
5.3.5. Geometric and symbolic motifs . . 159
5.3.5.1. General remarks . . 159
5.3.5.2. Lattices and vertical bars . . 159
5.3.5.3. Omega-like designs . . 163
5.3.5.4. Circles and spirals . . 165
5.3.5.5. Vertical and horizontal bars . . 168
5.3.5.6. St. John's Arms . . 168
5.3.5.7. The infinity symbol . . 170
5.3.5.8. Other motifs and their combinations . . 171
5.4. Summary and conclusions on inlaid motifs . . 172

6. AN EXPERIMENTAL VIEW OF INLAYING . . 176
6.1. The manufacture of iron inlays in earlier studies . . 176
6.1.1. Earlier hypotheses . . 176
6.1.2. Experimental studies . . 178
6.1.2.1. Andresen's experiment . . 178
6.1.2.2. Hansen's experiment . . 179
6.1.3. Observations of commercial products . . 180
6.1.4. Indications of manufacturing techniques in archaeological find material . . 181
6.1.4.1. Observations from previous studies and analyses . . 181
6.1.4.2. The find material of this work . . 183
6.1.5. Hints of technology in written and pictorial sources . . 190
6.2. The theory of experimental archaeology and its applications . . 191
6.3. The selection of materials and tools for the experiments . . 196
6.4. Possible techniques for attaching a single letter . . 199
6.5. Applying the techniques to a complete sword blade . . 202
6.5.1. The process of making a complete blade . . 202
6.5.2. The different techniques of sword forging . . 203
6.5.2.1. Constructing the blade blank . . 203
6.5.2.2. Shaping the blade . . 205
6.5.2.3. Heat treatments . . 206
6.5.2.4. Finishing the blade . . 207
6.6. Attaching inscriptions on blades - a summary of 13 experiments . . 208
6.7. Observations of the experiments . . 217
6.7.1. Criticism . . 217
6.7.2. Methods of inlaying iron according to the experiments . . 218
6.7.3. The appearance of the inlays . . 221
6.8. Summary and conclusions . . 223

7. THE HILTS OF THE STUDIED SWORDS . . 225
7.1. Hilt typologies: traditional classification and the dating of swords . . 225
7.1.1. The background of typologie . . 225
7.1.2. Petersen's typology . . 226
7.1.3. Other typologies of the hilt . . 227
7.1.4. Sword hilts in art of the period . . 232
7.2. Types, decoration and chronology . . 234
7.2.1. Behmer's type VI . . 239
7.2.2. Petersen B . . 239
7.2.3. Petersen's special types 1 and 2, and the Mannheim and Mannheim-Speyer types . .241
7.2.4. Petersen C . . 243
7.2.5. Petersen E . . 244
7.2.6. Petersen H . . 245
7.2.7. Petersen I . . 248
7.2.8. Petersen N . . 250
7.2.9. Petersen O . . 250
7.2.10. Petersen Q . . 251
7.2.11. Petersen R . . 251
7.2.12. Petersen S . . 252
7.2.13. Petersen T . . 253
7.2.14. Petersen U . . 254
7.2.15. Petersen V . . 255
7.2.16. Petersen X (later variant) . . 256
7.2.17. Petersen Y . . 258
7.2.18. Petersen Z . . 259
7.2.19. Hilts resembling Petersen's types . . 261
7.2.20. The silver-plated type . . 265
7.2.21. Types with brazil-nut pommels . . 268
7.2.22. Disc-pommeled swords . . 270
7.2.23. Other post-Viking Age hilts . . 274
7.3. On the techniques of decoration . . 275
7.4. Other features . . 278
7.4.1. On the fitting of hilts and blades . . 278
7.4.2. Signs of use and repair . . 280
7.4.3. Grips . . 281
7.5. Summary and conclusions regarding hilts . . 283

8. THE CHRONOLOGY OF INLAID SWORDS . . 284
8.1. Dates for studied finds . . 284
8.2. Chronologies for inlaid motifs . . 287
8.3. Notes on the chronology of inlays in Finnish swords . . 288

9. IRON-INLAID SWORDS IN FINLAND AND EUROPE . . 292
9.1. On the number of inlaid swords in Finland and Europe . . 292
9.2. The meaning and purpose of inlaid motifs . . 294
9.2.1. Questions of language and religion . . 294
9.2.2. The various meanings of inlaid motifs . . 296
9.2.3. Information from artworks and written sources . . 299
9.2.4. The significance of pattern-welding . . 300
9.3. Views on the origin and manufacture of inlaid blades . . 301
9.3.1. Sources of raw materials . . 301
9.3.2. Manufacture: tools, environment and expertise . . 305
9.3.3. The weapons trade . . 308
9.3.4. Discussion on production and imitation outside the Prankish realm . . 311
9.3.5. On the origin of the hilts . . 318
9.4. Inlaid sword in use . . 319
9.4.1. Practical use and its evidence . . 319
9.4.2. An artefact of status and power? . . 322
9.5. Conclusions . . 324

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . 326

SOURCES . . 327

APPENDIX 1: Measurements of the studied swords . . 346
APPENDIX 2: Catalogue . . 348
APPENDIX 3: Find contexts . . 426
APPENDIX 4: Glossary of terms related to swords, metallurgy and ironworking . . 459